Attention Is All You Need

May 14, 2023 - 우원

Attention Is All You Need

2017 Google Brain & Research - Attention is all you need

Introduction

Transformer는 기존의 RNN, CNN 기반의 모델을 대체할 수 있는 새로운 모델입니다.

Authors

Abstract

The dominant sequence transduction models are based on complex recurrent or convolutional neural networks that include an encoder and a decoder. The best performing models also connect the encoder and decoder through an attention mechanism. We propose a new simple network architecture, the Transformer, based solely on attention mechanisms, dispensing with recurrence and convolutions entirely. Experiments on two machine translation tasks show these models to be superior in quality while being more parallelizable and requiring significantly less time to train. Our model achieves 28.4 BLEU on the WMT 2014 English- to-German translation task, improving over the existing best results, including ensembles, by over 2 BLEU. On the WMT 2014 English-to-French translation task, our model establishes a new single-model state-of-the-art BLEU score of 41.8 after training for 3.5 days on eight GPUs, a small fraction of the training costs of the best models from the literature. We show that the Transformer generalizes well to other tasks by applying it successfully to English constituency parsing both with large and limited training data.

현재 지배적인 시퀀스 변환 모델은 인코더와 디코더를 포함하는 복잡한 RNN, CNN을 기반으로 합니다. 최고의 성능을 발휘하는 모델은 Attention Mechanism을 통해 인코더와 디코더를 연결하기도 합니다. 우리는 새로운 심플 네트워크 아키텍처인 Transformer를 제안합니다. 반복 및 컨볼루션을 완전히 생략하고 Attention Mechanism에만 기반합니다. 두 가지 기계 번역 작업에 대한 실험은 이러한 모델이 더 병렬화 가능하고 훈련하는 데 훨씬 적은 시간이 필요한 동시에 품질이 우수함을 보여줍니다. 우리 모델은 WMT 2014 영어-독일어 번역 작업에서 28.4 BLEU를 달성하여 앙상블을 포함한 기존 최상의 결과보다 2 BLEU 이상 향상되었습니다. WMT 2014 영어-프랑스어 번역 작업에서 우리 모델은 문헌 속 최고 모델의 훈련 비용 중 일부분에 불과한 8개의 GPU에서 3.5일 동안 훈련한 후 새로운 단일 모델 최첨단 BLEU 점수 41.8을 확립했습니다. 우리는 Transformer가 대규모 및 제한된 훈련 데이터를 사용하는 영어 구문 분석에 성공적으로 적용되는 것으로 다른 작업에 잘 일반화됨을 보여줍니다.

Tip
BLEU는 기계 번역의 성능을 측정하는 지표입니다.

1. Introduction

Recurrent neural networks, long short-term memory [13] and gated recurrent [7] neural networks in particular, have been firmly established as state of the art approaches in sequence modeling and transduction problems such as language modeling and machine translation [35, 2, 5]. Numerous efforts have since continued to push the boundaries of recurrent language models and encoder-decoder architectures [38, 24, 15]. Recurrent models typically factor computation along the symbol positions of the input and output sequences. Aligning the positions to steps in computation time, they generate a sequence of hidden states ht, as a function of the previous hidden state ht−1 and the input for position t. This inherently sequential nature precludes parallelization within training examples, which becomes critical at longer sequence lengths, as memory constraints limit batching across examples. Recent work has achieved significant improvements in computational efficiency through factorization tricks [21] and conditional computation [32], while also improving model performance in case of the latter. The fundamental constraint of sequential computation, however, remains. Attention mechanisms have become an integral part of compelling sequence modeling and transduction models in various tasks, allowing modeling of dependencies without regard to their distance in the input or output sequences [2, 19]. In all but a few cases [27], however, such attention mechanisms are used in conjunction with a recurrent network. In this work we propose the Transformer, a model architecture eschewing recurrence and instead relying entirely on an attention mechanism to draw global dependencies between input and output. The Transformer allows for significantly more parallelization and can reach a new state of the art in translation quality after being trained for as little as twelve hours on eight P100 GPUs.

순환 신경망(RNN), 특히 장단기 메모리(LSTM) 및 게이트 순환 신경망은 언어 모델링 및 기계 번역과 같은 시퀀스 모델링 및 변환 문제에서 최첨단 접근 방식으로 확고하게 자리 잡았습니다. 그 이후로 순환 언어 모델과 인코더-디코더 아키텍처(encoder-decoder architectures)의 경계를 넓히기 위한 수많은 노력이 계속되었습니다. 순환 모델은 일반적으로 입력 및 출력 시퀀스의 기호 위치에 따라 계산을 고려합니다. 계산 시간의 단계에 위치를 정렬하여 종전의 숨겨진 상태 h(t-1) 및 위치 t에 대한 입력의 함수로 숨겨진 상태 시퀀스 ht를 생성합니다. 이 본질적으로 순차적인 특성은 훈련 예제 내에서 병렬화를 배제하며, 이는 메모리 제약 조건이 예제 전체에서 일괄 처리를 제한하기 때문에 더 긴 시퀀스 길이에서 중요해집니다. 최근 연구에서는 인수분해 트릭과 조건부 계산을 통해 계산 효율성이 크게 향상되었으며 조건부 계산의 경우 모델 성능도 향상되었습니다. 그러나 순차 계산의 근본적인 제약은 그대로 남아 있습니다. Attention Mechanism은 다양한 작업에서 강력한 시퀀스 모델링 및 변환 모델의 필수적인 부분이 되어 입력 또는 출력 시퀀스의 거리에 관계없이 종속성을 모델링할 수 있습니다. 그러나 몇 가지 경우를 제외하고는 이러한 Attention Mechanism이 순환 네트워크와 함께 사용됩니다. 이 작업에서 우리는 반복을 피하고 입력과 출력 사이의 전역 종속성을 그리는 Attention Mechanism에 전적으로 의존하는 모델 아키텍처인 Transformer를 제안합니다. Transformer는 훨씬 더 많은 병렬화를 허용하며 8개의 P100 GPU에서 단 12시간 동안 훈련된 후 번역 품질에서 새로운 최첨단에 도달할 수 있습니다.

2. Background

The goal of reducing sequential computation also forms the foundation of the Extended Neural GPU, ByteNet and ConvS2S, all of which use convolutional neural networks as basic building block, computing hidden representations in parallel for all input and output positions. In these models, the number of operations required to relate signals from two arbitrary input or output positions grows in the distance between positions, linearly for ConvS2S and logarithmically for ByteNet. This makes it more difficult to learn dependencies between distant positions. In the Transformer this is reduced to a constant number of operations, albeit at the cost of reduced effective resolution due to averaging attention-weighted positions, an effect we counteract with Multi-Head Attention as described in section 3.2. Self-attention, sometimes called intra-attention is an attention mechanism relating different positions of a single sequence in order to compute a representation of the sequence. Self-attention has been used successfully in a variety of tasks including reading comprehension, abstractive summarization, textual entailment and learning task-independent sentence representations. End-to-end memory networks are based on a recurrent attention mechanism instead of sequence-aligned recurrence and have been shown to perform well on simple-language question answering and language modeling tasks. To the best of our knowledge, however, the Transformer is the first transduction model relying entirely on self-attention to compute representations of its input and output without using sequence-aligned RNNs or convolution. In the following sections, we will describe the Transformer, motivate self-attention and discuss its advantages over models such as Neural GPUs learn algorithms[17], Neural machine translation in linear time[18] and Convolutional sequence to sequence learning[9].

순차 계산을 줄이는 목표는 또한 확장 신경망 GPU, ByteNet 및 ConvS2S의 기초를 형성하며, 이 모두는 기본 쌓기 블록으로 CNN을 사용하여 모든 입력 및 출력 위치에 대해 숨겨진 표현(representations)을 병렬로 계산합니다. 이러한 모델에서 두 개의 임의 입력 또는 출력 위치의 신호를 연결하는 데 필요한 작업의 수는 ConvS2S의 경우 선형적으로, ByteNet의 경우 대수적으로 위치 사이의 거리에서 증가합니다. 이로 인해 멀리 떨어진 위치 간의 종속성을 학습하기가 더 어려워집니다. 트랜스포머에서 이는 일정한 수의 작업으로 줄어드는데, 어텐션 가중 위치의 평균화로 인해 유효 분해능이 감소하지만 섹션 3.2에서 설명한 것처럼 Multi-Head Attention으로 대응하는 효과입니다. 때때로 인트라 어텐션(intra-attention)이라고도 하는 셀프 어텐션은 시퀀스의 표현을 계산하기 위해 단일 시퀀스의 다른 위치와 관련된 Attention Mechanism입니다. Self-Attention은 독해, 추상적 요약, 텍스트 수반 및 작업 독립적인 문장 표현 학습을 포함한 다양한 작업에서 성공적으로 사용되었습니다. End-to-end 메모리 네트워크는 정렬된 시퀀스 순환 대신 순환 Attention Mechanism을 기반으로 하며 간단한 언어 질문 응답 및 언어 모델링 작업에서 잘 수행되는 것으로 나타났습니다. 그러나 우리가 아는 한 Transformer는 시퀀스 정렬 RNN 또는 컨볼루션을 사용하지 않고 입력 및 출력의 표현을 계산하기 위해 전적으로 self-attention에 의존하는 최초의 변환 모델입니다. 다음 섹션에서는 트랜스포머에 대해 설명하고 self-attention에 동기를 부여하며 Neural GPU 학습 알고리즘, 선형 시간의 Neural machine translation 및 Convolutional sequence to sequence learning과 같은 모델에 비해 이점에 대해 논의합니다.

3. Model Architecture

Most competitive neural sequence transduction models have an encoder-decoder structure [5, 2, 35]. Here, the encoder maps an input sequence of symbol representations (x1,...,xn) to a sequence of continuous representations z = (z1,...,zn). Given z, the decoder then generates an output sequence (y1, ..., ym) of symbols one element at a time. At each step the model is auto-regressive [10], consuming the previously generated symbols as additional input when generating the next. The Transformer follows this overall architecture using stacked self-attention and point-wise, fully connected layers for both the encoder and decoder, shown in the left and right halves of Figure 1, respectively.

대부분의 경쟁력 있는 신경 시퀀스 변환 모델에는 인코더-디코더 구조가 있습니다. 인코더는 기호 표현의 입력 시퀀스(x1,...,xn)를 연속 표현의 시퀀스 z = (z1,...,zn)에 매핑합니다. z가 주어지면 디코더는 한 번에 한 요소씩 심볼의 출력 시퀀스(y1, ..., ym)를 생성합니다. 각 단계에서 모델은 자동 회귀적이며 다음 생성 단계 이전에 생성된 기호를 추가 입력으로 사용합니다.

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Figure 1: The Transformer - model architecture.

3.1 Encoder and Decoder Stacks

Encoder: The encoder is composed of a stack of N = 6 identical layers. Each layer has two sub-layers. The first is a multi-head self-attention mechanism, and the second is a simple, position- wise fully connected feed-forward network. We employ a residual connection [11] around each of the two sub-layers, followed by layer normalization [1]. That is, the output of each sub-layer is LayerNorm(x + Sublayer(x)), where Sublayer(x) is the function implemented by the sub-layer itself. To facilitate these residual connections, all sub-layers in the model, as well as the embedding layers, produce outputs of dimension dmodel = 512.

Decoder: The decoder is also composed of a stack of N = 6 identical layers. In addition to the two sub-layers in each encoder layer, the decoder inserts a third sub-layer, which performs multi-head attention over the output of the encoder stack. Similar to the encoder, we employ residual connections around each of the sub-layers, followed by layer normalization. We also modify the self-attention sub-layer in the decoder stack to prevent positions from attending to subsequent positions. This masking, combined with fact that the output embeddings are offset by one position, ensures that the predictions for position i can depend only on the known outputs at positions less than i.

3.2 Attention

An attention function can be described as mapping a query and a set of key-value pairs to an output, where the query, keys, values, and output are all vectors. The output is computed as a weighted sum of the values, where the weight assigned to each value is computed by a compatibility function of the query with the corresponding key.

Scaled Dot-Product Attention

Multi-Head Attention

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Figure 2: (left) Scaled Dot-Product Attention. (right) Multi-Head Attention consists of several attention layers running in parallel.

3.2.1 Scaled Dot-Product Attention

We call our particular attention "Scaled Dot-Product Attention" (Figure 2). The input consists of queries and keys of dimension d , and values of dimension d . We compute the dot products of the query with all keys, divide each by dk, and apply a softmax function to obtain the weights on the values. In practice, we compute the attention function on a set of queries simultaneously, packed together into a matrix Q. The keys and values are also packed together into matrices K and V. We compute the matrix of outputs as:

The two most commonly used attention functions are additive attention [2], and dot-product (multiplicative) attention. Dot-product attention is identical to our algorithm, except for the scaling factor of √1. Additive attention computes the compatibility function using a feed-forward network with dk a single hidden layer. While the two are similar in theoretical complexity, dot-product attention is much faster and more space-efficient in practice, since it can be implemented using highly optimized matrix multiplication code. While for small values of dk the two mechanisms perform similarly, additive attention outperforms dot product attention without scaling for larger values of dk [3]. We suspect that for large values of dk, the dot products grow large in magnitude, pushing the softmax function into regions where it has extremely small gradients 4. To counteract this effect, we scale the dot products by √1 .

3.2.2 Multi-Head Attention

Instead of performing a single attention function with dmodel-dimensional keys, values and queries, we found it beneficial to linearly project the queries, keys and values h times with different, learned linear projections to dk, dk and dv dimensions, respectively. On each of these projected versions of queries, keys and values we then perform the attention function in parallel, yielding dv -dimensional output values. These are concatenated and once again projected, resulting in the final values, as depicted in Figure 2.

Multi-head attention allows the model to jointly attend to information from different representation subspaces at different positions. With a single attention head, averaging inhibits this.

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In this work we employ h = 8 parallel attention layers, or heads. For each of these we use dk = dv = dmodel/h = 64. Due to the reduced dimension of each head, the total computational cost is similar to that of single-head attention with full dimensionality.

3.2.3 Applications of Attention in our Model

The Transformer uses multi-head attention in three different ways:

  • In "encoder-decoder attention" layers, the queries come from the previous decoder layer, and the memory keys and values come from the output of the encoder. This allows every position in the decoder to attend over all positions in the input sequence. This mimics the typical encoder-decoder attention mechanisms in sequence-to-sequence models such as [38, 2, 9].
  • The encoder contains self-attention layers. In a self-attention layer all of the keys, values and queries come from the same place, in this case, the output of the previous layer in the encoder. Each position in the encoder can attend to all positions in the previous layer of the encoder.
  • Similarly, self-attention layers in the decoder allow each position in the decoder to attend to all positions in the decoder up to and including that position. We need to prevent leftward information flow in the decoder to preserve the auto-regressive property. We implement this inside of scaled dot-product attention by masking out (setting to −∞) all values in the input of the softmax which correspond to illegal connections. See Figure 2.

3.3 Position-wise Feed-Forward Networks

In addition to attention sub-layers, each of the layers in our encoder and decoder contains a fully connected feed-forward network, which is applied to each position separately and identically. This consists of two linear transformations with a ReLU activation in between.

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While the linear transformations are the same across different positions, they use different parameters from layer to layer. Another way of describing this is as two convolutions with kernel size 1. The dimensionality of input and output is dmodel = 512, and the inner-layer has dimensionality dff =2048.

3.4 Embeddings and Softmax

Similarly to other sequence transduction models, we use learned embeddings to convert the input tokens and output tokens to vectors of dimension dmodel. We also use the usual learned linear transfor- mation and softmax function to convert the decoder output to predicted next-token probabilities. In our model, we share the same weight matrix between the two embedding layers and the pre-softmax linear transformation, similar to [30]. In the embedding layers, we multiply those weights by √dmodel.

3.5 Positional Encoding

Since our model contains no recurrence and no convolution, in order for the model to make use of the order of the sequence, we must inject some information about the relative or absolute position of the Table1: Maximum path lengths, per-layer complexity and minimum number of sequential operations for different layer types. n is the sequence length, d is the representation dimension, k is the kernel size of convolutions and r the size of the neighborhood in restricted self-attention.

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tokens in the sequence. To this end, we add "positional encodings" to the input embeddings at the bottoms of the encoder and decoder stacks. The positional encodings have the same dimension dmodel as the embeddings, so that the two can be summed. There are many choices of positional encodings, learned and fixed [9].

In this work, we use sine and cosine functions of different frequencies:

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where pos is the position and i is the dimension. That is, each dimension of the positional encoding corresponds to a sinusoid. The wavelengths form a geometric progression from 2π to 10000 · 2π. We chose this function because we hypothesized it would allow the model to easily learn to attend by relative positions, since for any fixed offset k, P Epos+k can be represented as a linear function of PEpos.

We also experimented with using learned positional embeddings [9] instead, and found that the two versions produced nearly identical results (see Table 3 row (E)). We chose the sinusoidal version because it may allow the model to extrapolate to sequence lengths longer than the ones encountered during training.

4. Why Self-Attention

In this section we compare various aspects of self-attention layers to the recurrent and convolu- tional layers commonly used for mapping one variable-length sequence of symbol representations (x1, ..., xn) to another sequence of equal length (z1, ..., zn), with xi, zi ∈ Rd, such as a hidden layer in a typical sequence transduction encoder or decoder. Motivating our use of self-attention we consider three desiderata.

One is the total computational complexity per layer. Another is the amount of computation that can be parallelized, as measured by the minimum number of sequential operations required.

The third is the path length between long-range dependencies in the network. Learning long-range dependencies is a key challenge in many sequence transduction tasks. One key factor affecting the ability to learn such dependencies is the length of the paths forward and backward signals have to traverse in the network. The shorter these paths between any combination of positions in the input and output sequences, the easier it is to learn long-range dependencies [12]. Hence we also compare the maximum path length between any two input and output positions in networks composed of the different layer types.

As noted in Table 1, a self-attention layer connects all positions with a constant number of sequentially executed operations, whereas a recurrent layer requires O(n) sequential operations. In terms of computational complexity, self-attention layers are faster than recurrent layers when the sequence length n is smaller than the representation dimensionality d, which is most often the case with sentence representations used by state-of-the-art models in machine translations, such as word-piece [38] and byte-pair [31] representations. To improve computational performance for tasks involving very long sequences, self-attention could be restricted to considering only a neighborhood of size r in

the input sequence centered around the respective output position. This would increase the maximum path length to O(n/r). We plan to investigate this approach further in future work.

A single convolutional layer with kernel width k < n does not connect all pairs of input and output positions. Doing so requires a stack of O(n/k) convolutional layers in the case of contiguous kernels, or O(logk(n)) in the case of dilated convolutions [18], increasing the length of the longest paths between any two positions in the network. Convolutional layers are generally more expensive than recurrent layers, by a factor of k. Separable convolutions [6], however, decrease the complexity considerably, to O(k · n · d + n · d2). Even with k = n, however, the complexity of a separable convolution is equal to the combination of a self-attention layer and a point-wise feed-forward layer, the approach we take in our model.

As side benefit, self-attention could yield more interpretable models. We inspect attention distributions from our models and present and discuss examples in the appendix. Not only do individual attention heads clearly learn to perform different tasks, many appear to exhibit behavior related to the syntactic and semantic structure of the sentences.

5. Training

This section describes the training regime for our models.

5.1 Training Data and Batching

We trained on the standard WMT 2014 English-German dataset consisting of about 4.5 million sentence pairs. Sentences were encoded using byte-pair encoding [3], which has a shared source- target vocabulary of about 37000 tokens. For English-French, we used the significantly larger WMT 2014 English-French dataset consisting of 36M sentences and split tokens into a 32000 word-piece vocabulary [38]. Sentence pairs were batched together by approximate sequence length. Each training batch contained a set of sentence pairs containing approximately 25000 source tokens and 25000 target tokens.

5.2 Hardware and Schedule

We trained our models on one machine with 8 NVIDIA P100 GPUs. For our base models using the hyperparameters described throughout the paper, each training step took about 0.4 seconds. We trained the base models for a total of 100,000 steps or 12 hours. For our big models,(described on the bottom line of table 3), step time was 1.0 seconds. The big models were trained for 300,000 steps (3.5 days).

5.3 Optimizer

We used the Adam optimizer [20] with β1 = 0.9, β2 = 0.98 and ε = 10−9. We varied the learning rate over the course of training, according to the formula:

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This corresponds to increasing the learning rate linearly for the first warmup_steps training steps, and decreasing it thereafter proportionally to the inverse square root of the step number. We used warmup_steps = 4000.

5.4 Regularization

We employ three types of regularization during training:

Residual Dropout We apply dropout [33] to the output of each sub-layer, before it is added to the sub-layer input and normalized. In addition, we apply dropout to the sums of the embeddings and the positional encodings in both the encoder and decoder stacks. For the base model, we use a rate of Pdrop = 0.1.

Table 2: The Transformer achieves better BLEU scores than previous state-of-the-art models on the English-to-German and English-to-French newstest2014 tests at a fraction of the training cost.

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Label Smoothing During training, we employed label smoothing of value εls = 0.1 [36]. This hurts perplexity, as the model learns to be more unsure, but improves accuracy and BLEU score.

6. Results

6.1 Machine Translation

On the WMT 2014 English-to-German translation task, the big transformer model (Transformer (big) in Table 2) outperforms the best previously reported models (including ensembles) by more than 2.0 BLEU, establishing a new state-of-the-art BLEU score of 28.4. The configuration of this model is listed in the bottom line of Table 3. Training took 3.5 days on 8 P100 GPUs. Even our base model surpasses all previously published models and ensembles, at a fraction of the training cost of any of the competitive models.

On the WMT 2014 English-to-French translation task, our big model achieves a BLEU score of 41.0, outperforming all of the previously published single models, at less than 1/4 the training cost of the previous state-of-the-art model. The Transformer (big) model trained for English-to-French used dropout rate Pdrop = 0.1, instead of 0.3.

For the base models, we used a single model obtained by averaging the last 5 checkpoints, which were written at 10-minute intervals. For the big models, we averaged the last 20 checkpoints. We used beam search with a beam size of 4 and length penalty α = 0.6 [38]. These hyperparameters were chosen after experimentation on the development set. We set the maximum output length during inference to input length + 50, but terminate early when possible [38].

Table 2 summarizes our results and compares our translation quality and training costs to other model architectures from the literature. We estimate the number of floating point operations used to train a model by multiplying the training time, the number of GPUs used, and an estimate of the sustained single-precision floating-point capacity of each GPU 5.

6.2 Model Variations

To evaluate the importance of different components of the Transformer, we varied our base model in different ways, measuring the change in performance on English-to-German translation on the development set, newstest2013. We used beam search as described in the previous section, but no checkpoint averaging. We present these results in Table 3.

In Table 3 rows (A), we vary the number of attention heads and the attention key and value dimensions, keeping the amount of computation constant, as described in Section 3.2.2. While single-head attention is 0.9 BLEU worse than the best setting, quality also drops off with too many heads.

Table 3: Variations on the Transformer architecture. Unlisted values are identical to those of the base model. All metrics are on the English-to-German translation development set, newstest2013. Listed perplexities are per-wordpiece, according to our byte-pair encoding, and should not be compared to per-word perplexities.

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테이블은 이미지로 대체합니다.

Table 4: The Transformer generalizes well to English constituency parsing (Results are on Section 23 of WSJ)

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테이블은 이미지로 대체합니다.

In Table 3 rows (B), we observe that reducing the attention key size dk hurts model quality. This suggests that determining compatibility is not easy and that a more sophisticated compatibility function than dot product may be beneficial. We further observe in rows (C) and (D) that, as expected, bigger models are better, and dropout is very helpful in avoiding over-fitting. In row (E) we replace our sinusoidal positional encoding with learned positional embeddings [9], and observe nearly identical results to the base model.

6.3 English Constituency Parsing

To evaluate if the Transformer can generalize to other tasks we performed experiments on English constituency parsing. This task presents specific challenges: the output is subject to strong structural constraints and is significantly longer than the input. Furthermore, RNN sequence-to-sequence models have not been able to attain state-of-the-art results in small-data regimes [37].

We trained a 4-layer transformer with dmodel = 1024 on the Wall Street Journal (WSJ) portion of the Penn Treebank [25], about 40K training sentences. We also trained it in a semi-supervised setting, using the larger high-confidence and BerkleyParser corpora from with approximately 17M sentences [37]. We used a vocabulary of 16K tokens for the WSJ only setting and a vocabulary of 32K tokens for the semi-supervised setting.

We performed only a small number of experiments to select the dropout, both attention and residual (section 5.4), learning rates and beam size on the Section 22 development set, all other parameters remained unchanged from the English-to-German base translation model. During inference, we increased the maximum output length to input length + 300. We used a beam size of 21 and α = 0.3 for both WSJ only and the semi-supervised setting.

Our results in Table 4 show that despite the lack of task-specific tuning our model performs sur- prisingly well, yielding better results than all previously reported models with the exception of the Recurrent Neural Network Grammar [8].

In contrast to RNN sequence-to-sequence models [37], the Transformer outperforms the Berkeley- Parser [29] even when training only on the WSJ training set of 40K sentences.

7. Conclusion

In this work, we presented the Transformer, the first sequence transduction model based entirely on attention, replacing the recurrent layers most commonly used in encoder-decoder architectures with multi-headed self-attention.

For translation tasks, the Transformer can be trained significantly faster than architectures based on recurrent or convolutional layers. On both WMT 2014 English-to-German and WMT 2014 English-to-French translation tasks, we achieve a new state of the art. In the former task our best model outperforms even all previously reported ensembles.

We are excited about the future of attention-based models and plan to apply them to other tasks. We plan to extend the Transformer to problems involving input and output modalities other than text and to investigate local, restricted attention mechanisms to efficiently handle large inputs and outputs such as images, audio and video. Making generation less sequential is another research goals of ours.

The code we used to train and evaluate our models is available at https://github.com/ tensorflow/tensor2tensor.

Acknowledgements We are grateful to Nal Kalchbrenner and Stephan Gouws for their fruitful comments, corrections and inspiration.

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Attention Visualizations

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Figure 3: An example of the attention mechanism following long-distance dependencies in the encoder self-attention in layer 5 of 6. Many of the attention heads attend to a distant dependency of the verb ‘making’, completing the phrase ‘making...more difficult’. Attentions here shown only for the word ‘making’. Different colors represent different heads. Best viewed in color.

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